Chapters 8.5

8.5- Oyster mushrooms

Alex Wimsatt , University of Guelph, Canada

Suggested citation for this chapter.

Wimsatt,A. (2022) Mushrooms And Fungi. In The Student Encyclopedia of Canadian Indigenous Foods. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.firstnationsfoods.org/

Introduction

Pleurotus ostreatus is an edible mushroom, otherwise known as the oyster mushroom. In Latin, Pleurotus means sideways. This signifies the stem growing sideways (Deepalakshmi & Mirunalini, 2013). The name ostreatus means oyster. It references the shape of the cap since it resembles an oyster, hence its more common name, the oyster mushroom, as viewed in Figure 1 (Deepalakshmi & Mirunalini, 2013). Another way of identifying the oyster mushroom is by looking for white gills that run from the cap to the stem (Kuo, 2017). Although mushrooms and other fungi species were not eaten widely across Indigenous communities, they originated from the Interior Salish peoples in British Columbia (Kuhnlein & Turner, 1991). This paper will review the details of consumption, history, and other uses of the oyster mushroom.

Figure 1. Pleurotus ostreatus (Kuo, 2017).

Consumption

Mushrooms were not commonly eaten across Indigenous communities (Kuhnlein & Turner, 1991). This was thought to be because of the amount of toxic mushrooms and the difficulties of finding distinctions between edible and toxic. However, this was not always the case, especially in Inuit and other northern Indigenous communities. In northern Canada there are many types of edible mushrooms, however mushrooms were viewed with disgust. In fact, mushroom means “that which causes your hands to come off” in local Inupiat. In Canada, apart from the far north, it is hard to tell the difference between toxic and nontoxic mushrooms and that was also a contributing factor to the lack of mushroom consumption. If a toxic mushroom is eaten, some mild symptoms include nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. Worse symptoms include severe stomach pains, deterioration of the liver and kidney, as well as becoming comatose, and potentially death. The few Indigenous communities that would eat mushrooms were aware of which mushrooms were dangerous and even had some cures for mild symptoms, such as consuming bear grease (Kuhnlein & Turner, 1991). In Figure 2, two types of mushrooms are shown. The lighter tan is the pearl oyster mushroom, which is very edible. The second orange mushroom is a jack-o-lantern mushroom which is poisonous (Carlin, 2022).

Figure 2: Non-toxic oyster mushroom (left) compared to a toxic mushroom (right) (Carlin, 2022).

Cooking Methods

Though there are many methods of drying out mushrooms, they were most commonly hung up by strings or threaded through skewers to dry (Kuhnlein & Turner, 1991). Dehydration is helpful because it makes the mushrooms lighter and makes them last longer. Many foods were cooked before consumption and it is assumed many Indigenous communities had their own way for preparing food. One way of preparing mushrooms is by peeling off the mushrooms skin, then boiling them, draining them, and finally frying them in butter. Similarly, they can be boiled with meat stew. More specific to the Interior Salish peoples of British Columbia, they would cut holes in raw meat before inserting the mushrooms, cooking both the meat and the mushrooms at the same time. Today the Interior Salish peoples use freezers or refrigerators to store the mushrooms to prevent them from going bad, however a while ago they would dry out the mushrooms for later use (Kuhnlein & Turner, 1991). Figure 2 shows a moose (also beef or bison) stew containing mushrooms, which is a common use for mushrooms.

Figure 2: Moose stew containing mushrooms (Wagar, 2022).

Nutritional Value

Mushrooms contain sufficient amounts of minerals and beneficial vitamins (Kuhnlein & Turner, 1991). They possess lots of water (when in their natural form and not dehydrated), but not many carbohydrates, fats, or proteins. Mushrooms normally contain 21-28 kcal for every 100 grams (Kuhnlein & Turner, 1991). They have a low calorific value, yet they have antibacterial properties and many key vitamins (Deepalakshmi & Mirunalini, 2013). Though they lack adequate protein, another benefit to consuming mushrooms is the essential amino acids they contain (Kuhnlein & Turner, 1991). Oyster mushrooms contain every essential amino acid except tryptophan (Leichter & Bandoni, 1980). As shown in Table 1, oyster mushrooms are relatively high in moisture content and carbohydrates compared to other mushrooms grown in British Columbia. They are relatively low in protein, fat, ash, and fibre content. As shown in Table 2, oyster mushrooms are relatively low in calcium, iron and zinc. However, they are higher in copper, vitamin C and folate compared to other mushrooms found in British Columbia.

Table 1: Nutrient content of mushrooms grown in British Columbia (Leichter & Bandoni, 1980).

Table 2: Mineral and vitamin content of mushrooms grown in British Columbia (Leichter & Bandoni, 1980).

Geographical Background

The Interior Salish peoples originating from British Columbia most commonly ate the oyster mushroom and some still do to this day (Kuhnlein & Turner, 1991). The oyster mushroom has been identified in the Nicola Valley, BC (Kuhnlein & Turner, 1991). In Figure 3, a map of North America is shown. All of the yellow dots are places where oyster mushrooms can be found in the wild. Since many oyster mushrooms are grown in British Columbia, there are restrictions on where to harvest them. Some of these restrictions are shown in Table 4, including Indigenous reserves. Figure 5 includes areas restricted because they are protected areas or they are special management zones.

Figure 3: Rough depiction of where Pleurotus ostreatus can be found today (Najjar et al., 2022).

Figure 4: Land ownership in British Columbia (Kroeger, 2018).

Figure 5: Protected areas and special management zones in British Columbia (Kroeger, 2018).

Historical Background

Though oyster mushrooms were rarely consumed across Indigenous communities, some communities who were thought to have consumed mushrooms or other types of fungi, apart from the Interior Salish peoples, included the Haudenosaunee, Denesuline, Southern Tutchone, Tagish, Siksikaitsitapi, Ktunaxa, Tsilhqot’in, Nlaka’pamux, and Stl’atl’imx (Turner & Cuerrier, 2021). Haudenosaunee peoples tend to live around the Great Lakes area, and speak the Iroquoian language (Ramsden, 2006). The Denesuline peoples live in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and the Northwest Territories, and are also referred to as Chipewyan (McCormack & Smith, 2006). Southern Yukon is where the Southern Tutchone peoples live (McClellan, 2007). Similarly to the peoples of Southern Tutchone, Tagish peoples are located in Carcross Yukon (McClellan, 2012). The Siksikaitsitapi, otherwise known as Blackfoot, are in Alberta (Dempsey, 2008). The Ktunaxa, also known as Kootenay, occupy southeastern British Columbia, Alberta, and parts of the United States of America (Walker, 2006). The Tsilhqot’in are in west-central British Columbia (Lane, 2010). The Nlaka’pamux and the Stl’atl’imx are in fact Interior Salish peoples, located in British Columbia and some of the United States (Kennedy & Bouchard, 2006). The exact species of mushroom Indigenous People would consume is slightly unknown due to the mushrooms being named based on what tree they grew on, or all being named “mishtuku-uâshkuetuî” simply meaning tree fungus (Turner & Cuerrier, 2021). However, it can be assumed which species were eaten in different communities based on visual descriptions and where the mushrooms are able to grow. About 20 types of fungi have been described as traditional foods for Indigenous Groups, which is not a large number (Turner & Cuerrier, 2021). For reference, Indigenous People of Mexico consume roughly 300 species of mushroom (Turner & Cuerrier, 2021). This could have to do with the availability of edible mushroom species, however it could simply be an overall distaste and stigma around mushrooms. Today, many mushroom species are consumed by Indigenous People, and it is believed those who do not like mushrooms received that trait from their ancestors (Turner & Cuerrier, 2021).

Medicinal Properties

There are many medicinal uses for different species of fungi. Some of these uses include boiling the fly agaric mushroom with other ingredients to make eye drops (Turner & Cuerrier, 2021). Another is placing a honey mushroom on aching teeth. Puffball’s spore powder is used to cure nosebleeds, help diaper rash, and treat sores and other wounds. Echinodontium tinctorium can be boiled or pulverized then added to grease to create a type of sun lotion, it can be rubbed on external wounds, and it can be utilized to help treat heart disease. Tinder fungus would be set aflame on skin to cure arthritis, burned on warts to remove them, or would be placed on frostbitten skin to help the healing process. Birch polypore fungus would be boiled, and that water would be consumed to heal internal bleeding, relieve heart pain, stomach and pulmonary problems. An unidentified pine-flavoured mushroom would be contained in the mouth, then its juices are swallowed to help a sore throat. A very interesting use of sedge sclerotium was mixing up ground pieces with water, creating a brew that was drunk by women to help with strenuous labour, aiding in afterbirth, and to treat irregular menstruation. A very popular use of mushrooms was to help heal wounds, the majority of medicinal mushrooms would be used for said reason. Another common use was treating sore throats or colds, and to help with joint pain (Turner & Cuerrier, 2021).

Other Uses

It seems as though Pleurotus ostreatus did not have many other uses other than cooking, however other fungi had multiple uses. Chlorociboria aeruginascens stains rotten wood, then this wood can be boiled, making a green and blue dye (Turner & Cuerrier, 2021). After burning a fungus residing on hemlock and fir trees (Cronartium quercumm and Echinodontium tinctorium), the ashes can be crushed and combined with deer grease, making a red paint. Fungi can also be made into a ball for games by using a firm, round piece of fungi wrapped in animal hide. Firm fungi can be carved into jewellery, figures, bowls, or containers. Fungi that are rough can be used to scrub hands or buckskin, and fungi that are spongy can be used to carry fire. A very interesting use of mushrooms is the Calvatia spores used to tranquillize bees while honey is being collected. Some other uses include burning fungi as a mosquito repellent, using it as fire starters, or using it in pipes to keep material burning longer (Turner & Cuerrier, 2021).

Figure 6: The amazing shape of a puffball mushroom (Sayner, 2022).

References

1.Carlin, O. (2022, July 9). Oyster Mushroom Identification Guide: 7 Types of Oyster Mushrooms & 3 Poisonous Look Alikes. Curative Mushrooms. Retrieved November 12, 2022, from https://curativemushrooms.com/7-types-of-oyster-mushrooms-3-poisonous-look-alikes

2.Deepalakshmi, K., & Mirunalini, S. (2014). Pleurotus ostreatus: an oyster mushroom with nutritional and medicinal properties. Biochemical Technology Society, 5(2), 718–716.

3.Dempsey, H. A. (2008, August 13). Siksika (Blackfoot). The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved November 12, 2022, from https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/blackfoot-siksika

4.Kennedy, D., & Bouchard, R. (2006, November 21). Interior Salish. The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved November 12, 2022, from https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/interior-salish-first-nations

5.Kroeger, P. (2018, February). Where and How to Pick Mushrooms. Vancouver Mycological Society. Retrieved from https://www.vanmyco.org/about-mushrooms/where-and-how-to-pick/

6.Kuo, M. (2017, December). Pleurotus ostreatus. MushroomExpert.Com. Retreived from http://www.mushroomexpert.com/pleurotus_ostreatus.html

7.Kuhnlein, H. V., & Turner, N. J. (2020). Traditional Plant Foods of Canadian Indigenous Peoples. Food and Nutrition in History and Anthropology, 8. DOI:10.4324/9781003054689

8.Lane, R. B. (2010, November 30). Tsilhqot'in (Chilcotin). The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved November 12, 2022, from https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/chilcotin-tsilhqotin

9.Leichter, J., & Bandoni, R. J. (1980). Nutrient Content of Mushrooms Grown in British Columbia. Canadian Institute of Food Science and Technology Journal, 13(3), 122–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0315-5463(80)73350-3

10.McClellan, C. (2007, January 29). Tutchone. The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved November 12, 2022, from https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/tutchone

11.McClellan, C. (2012, March 14). Tagish. The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved November 12, 2022, from https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/tagish

12.McCormack, P. A., & Smith, J. G. (2006, February 6). Denesuline (Chipewyan). The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved November 12, 2022, from https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/chipewyan

13.Najjar, C., Mooney, A., & Aycock, D. (2022). Pleurotus ostreatus. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved from https://www.discoverlife.org/20/q?search=Pleurotus+ostreatus

14.Ramsden, P. G. (2006, December 14). Haudenosaunee (Iroquois). The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved November 12, 2022, from https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/iroquois

15.Sayner, A. (2022, October 31). Puffball Mushrooms: The Ultimate Guide. GroCycle. Retrieved November 12, 2022, from https://grocycle.com/puffball-mushrooms-guide/

16.Turner, N. J., & Cuerrier, A. (2021). ‘frog’s umbrella’ and ‘ghost’s face powder’: The cultural roles of mushrooms and other fungi for Canadian Indigenous Peoples. Botany, 100(2), 183–205.

17.Wagar, K. (2022). 5 Indigenous Inspired Recipes to Make at Home. Wandering Wagars. Retrieved from https://wanderingwagars.com/indigenous-inspired-recipes/

18.Walker, D. E. (2006, February 7). Ktunaxa (Kootenay). The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved November 12, 2022, from https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/kootenay