Chapters 3.1
3.1 Chinook Salmon
Mason Lobsinger , University of Guelph, Canada
Suggested citation for this chapter.
Lobsinger,M. (2022) Fish And Freshwater/Marine Invertebrates. In The Student Encyclopedia of Canadian Indigenous Foods. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.firstnationsfoods.org/
General background information
Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) are a type of fish that are found throughout the waters of North America with a deep cultural relationship with local Indigenous communities (Carothers et al. 2021). Chinook salmon is an important and healthy food source with many nutritional benefits that can be eaten fresh,
smoked, canned or dried (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). In the past, Chinook salmon was typically filleted using different tools such as knives that were made out materials such as rocks or shells (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). The meat would then be cooked over a fire which made up a large part of many Indigenous communities’ diets, since it was a very good source of protein in their diet and is still consumed to this day (Carothers et al. 2021).
Salmon as a food source
The diet of many Indigenous communities has changed over the past hundreds of years from a diet that mainly consisted of salmon, game, berries and plants to a much more diverse diet (Blanchet et al. 2021). However, salmon is still consumed by many communities including Indigenous Peoples of the Northwest Plateau, Southern Okanagan, Tlingit, Carrier, Southern British Columbia and Northern Washington, including the Obsidian and Queen Charlotte Strait cultures of the Kwakiutl area, Siuslaw and Coosan, Coast Salish, Indigenous Peoples of McLeod Lake and Stuart Lake, Penobscot, Han, Inuit (including Netchillirmiut, Central, Copper, Iglulik, Labrador and Western Greenland) and Yupik (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). Chinook salmon specifically, is considered a primary food source for the Nuxalk people (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017).
The Nuxalk Nation is an Indigenous community that is located in Bella Coola, at the mouth of the Bella Coola River in British Columbia, Canada (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). For many centuries the Nuxalk people have been able to harvest and process their own food efficiently and sustainably (Turner et al. 2006). Chinook salmon was a main part of their diet since they were located very close to an abundant supply in the Bella Coola River and since salmon was a healthy food source (Turner et al. 2006). Salmon contains many healthy nutrients with Chinook salmon being one of the most nutrient-dense types of salmon including a high source of protein, many fatty acids, amino acids, omega-3 and much more which contribute to health and normal function of the human body (Colombo Mazal, 2020). Unfortunately, over the past 60 years, the Nuxalk people have had to change their diet to a less nutritious diet with more processed and packaged foods with higher calories and more unhealthy fats (Turner et al. 2006). This has been due to numerous reasons including the depletion of their traditional food sources such as the runs of salmon (Turner et al. 2006). With less salmon and less traditional food sources being available, the Nuxalk people have been forced to change their diet in a negative way, leading to a higher obesity rate and food insecurity (Turner et al. 2006).
Limitations to the consumption of salmon
The population of Chinook salmon has been declining for years due to numerous reasons including habitat destruction, climate change and overfishing (Blanchet et al. 2021). Bioaccumulation is another factor that affects the population of Chinook salmon and the meat (Carlson and Hites, 2005). Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of different toxins such as mercury and PCBs which are polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the food chain (Carlson and Hites, 2005). Since Chinook salmon are a mid-level predator, meaning they consume other organisms, these toxins can build up in the smaller organisms and then be passed onto the salmon after they consume that particular animal, causing a decline in the health and the meat quality of the salmon (Carlson and Hites, 2005). If the quality of their meat is being affected, it may not be suitable for human consumption resulting in the meat being wasted (Carlson and Hites, 2005). The decline in the population of salmon has a negative impact on Indigenous communities who rely on salmon as one of their main food sources such as the Nuxalk Nation (Blanchet et al. 2021). This limits the consumption of salmon which creates food insecurity and also has a negative spiritual impact on the Indigenous people as the population of salmon is declining (Blanchet et al. 2021).
Cultural significance of chinook salmon
The Indigenous peoples and salmon have lived in a close relationship for over twelve thousand years (Carothers et al. 2021). There have been ancient stories told of salmon-people relationships which are used to teach the younger generations about proper ways of being (Carothers et al. 2021). The younger generations are taught how to fish and how to be respectful and thankful for the fish they are catching and consuming (Carothers et al. 2021). There are also different traditions that involve salmon such as a tradition that is held by many different Indigenous communities which involves the welcoming of the first salmon called the “First Salmon Ceremony” (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). The first Chinook salmon seen in the spring was a momentous occasion for the remainder of the fishing season (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). The first salmon that was caught for a particular year was taken back to the village. Once brought back, the village was brought together for the “First Salmon Ceremony” (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). In this ceremony, the salmon would be wiped down with fern leaves then slit open with a knife made of mussel shell or stone (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). Small sticks were used to stretch out the fish then it was placed over a fire to be cooked (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). Everyone in the village would then be invited for a feast and each would be given a piece of this salmon (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). After it was consumed, the bones would be thrown back into the water in hopes for a good salmon run (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). This tradition is important because it is believed to ensure an abundance of salmon for the remaining season and ultimately, to show respect and gratitude to the salmon for providing food for the community (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017).
Chinook salmon fishing
The main fishing season occurs from May to June, although the Nuxalk also fish for Chinook salmon into the fall months (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). The Nuxalk people fish for Chinook salmon mainly in the Bella Coola River which is a freshwater river located in southern British Columbia and where the Nation is located (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). There are many techniques that are used to catch Chinook salmon including nets, traps, gill nets, weirs, spears and trolling (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). The Nuxalk people mainly trolled to catch chinook salmon, they would be in canoes with a line that connects to their paddle and a stone was attached to their line to keep the bait at the right depth (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). On the end of the line would be a sharp bone that would be used as a hook to catch the fish (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). A fisherman would be done fishing when his family had enough fish to eat (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). However, there were a few exceptions such as if the Chief was ordering fish to be caught for a special event such as a feast (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017).
Preparation of chinook salmon
After the salmon were caught, they needed to be prepared in order to be able to eat the meat. There are numerous ways in which Chinook salmon can be consumed including eating it fresh, smoked, dried or canned (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). Chinook salmon was traditionally cooked on a rack over a fire with salal leaves and cedar branches used as seasoning on the meat (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). Women typically prepared and cooked the salmon, they used different tools made out of stone, bone or shell to cut up and fillet the fish very carefully to ensure no part of the fish is wasted (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). The eggs, also known as roe, of Chinook salmon can also be consumed and are considered a delicacy (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). Salmon roe was dried or allowed to ferment by burying it underground, packed in maple leaves or stored in bags (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). Dried roe was rehydrated by soaking or boiling before being consumed, whereas fermented roe was boiled in a soup or consumed as is (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). The liquid remaining from the fermented roe was also used as a cold medicine (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017). The bones from the fish would not be wasted, they could be sharpened into different tools such as knives or into fish hooks or given to other animals like dogs (Kuhnlein and Humphries, 2017)./
In conclusion, Chinook salmon is an important species of fish to many Indigenous communities and especially to communities who consume Chinook salmon as a primary food source, such as the Nuxalk Nation. Chinook salmon is not only an important food source but also is an important part of their culture and an important resource spiritually. Hence why the population of Chinook salmon should be monitored closely to ensure that the population of Chinook salmon stays healthy.
References
1. Berdan, R. 2012. Bella Coola – Valley of the Grizzlies. The Canadian Nature Photgrapher. Retrieved from https://www.canadiannaturephotographer.com/bella_coola.html.
2. Blanchet, R., Batal, M., Johnson-Down, L., Johnson, S., and Willows, N. 2021. An Indigenous food sovereignty initiative is positively associated with well-being and cultural connectedness in a survey of Syilx Okanagan adults in British Columbia, Canada. BMC Public Health, 21, 1405. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-11229-2.
3. Carlson, D. L., Hites, R. A. 2005. Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Salmon and Salmon Feed: Global Differences and Bioaccumulation. Environ. Sci. Technol, 39 (19), 7389-7395. https://doi.org/10.1021/es048023r.
4. Carothers, C., Black, J., Langdon, S. J., Donkersloot, R., Ringer, R., Coleman, J., Gavenus, E.R., Justin, W., Williams, M., Christiansen, F., Stevens, C., Woods, B., Clark, S., Clay, P. M., Mack, L., Raymond-Yakoubian, J., Akall'eq Sanders, A., Stevens, B. L., and Whiting, L. 2021. Indigenous peoples and salmon stewardship: a critical relationship. Ecology and Society, 26(1), 16. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-11972-260116.
5. Colombo, S. M., Mazal, X. 2020. Investigation of the nutritional composition of different types of salmon available to Canadian consumers. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2020.100056
6. Kuhnlein, H.V. and Humphries, M. M. 2017. Traditional Animal Foods of Indigenous Peoples of Northern North America: Centre for Indigenous Peoples’ Nutrition and Environment, McGill University, Montreal. http://traditionalanimalfoods.org/.
7. Turner, N. J., Harvey, T., Burgess, S., Kuhnlein, H. V. 2006. The Nuxalk Food and Nutrition Program, coastal British Columbia, Canada: 1981-2006. (2): 23-27. Retrieved from https://www.fao.org/3/i0370e/i0370e03.pdf.