Chapters 6.35

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Arisaema triphyllum Bob Hunter Memorial Park.jpg

Suggested citation for this chapter.

Blankers,K. (2022) Greens, Fleshy Stems and Gourds. In The Student Encyclopedia of Canadian Indigenous Foods. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.firstnationsfoods.org/

Overview

Arisaema triphyllum, also known as Indian turnip is a spring wildflower native to Eastern North America. It has a variety of common names such as Jack-in-the-pulpit and Dragon root. It is known to be toxic, but with proper preparation it has been used by Indigenous groups as a food source and as traditional medicine throughout history.

Plant Information

Indian turnip , also known as Arisaema triphyllum is a perennial herb (Foster & Duke, 2000) that grows in rich soil (Peterson, 1977), and favours swamps or wet woods (Gracie, 2012). Plants within its genus, Arisaema, are found in both tropical and subtropical regions (Kunkel, 1984). Indian turnip is found in the Eastern North American region spanning from North Dakota to Nova Scotia, and south to Texas and Florida (Gracie, 2012).

Figure 1, a mature Indian turnip (Gracie, 2012)

Indian turnip, sometimes referred to as Jack-in-the-pulpit can be characterized by its spadix and spathe. The spadix is column like and has a long extension or appendage attached, which is often referred to as the “Jack” (Gracie, 2012). The “pulpit” overhangs the spathe and encloses the spadix (Gracie, 2012). The spathe has stripes that vary in colour, from a purple to green with white strips (Gracie, 2012). These variations along with location often are distinguished into the following subspecies triphylum, stewardonii, pusillum, and quietum (Gracie, 2012). However, distinguishing these subspecies is difficult due to their overlap in characteristics and growing regions (Gracie, 2012). Indian turnip often grows to one or two feet in height, with one or two leaves, each consisting of three leaflets. The flowers bloom in April to early July (Foster & Duke, 2000) and produce a cluster of egg-shaped scarlet berries (Peterson, 1977).

Indian turnip is considered dioecious (male and female flowers grow on different plants), however genetically it is bisexual (one plant has both female and male flowers) (Gracie, 2012). This occurrence is very rare, and typically bisexual plants only act as one sex (Gracie, 2012). A “male bisexual” plant does not produce fruit but does produce pollen (Gracie, 2012). Indian turnip can also change its sex from year to year based on the conditions experienced in the year before, and its ability to produce and store carbohydrates in its corm (Gracie, 2021). If the year was unfavorable, or the plant lives in a crowded and shady area it will typically regress to being male the next year (Gracie, 2021).

Indian turnip reproduces both asexually and sexually. Asexually it reproduces via corms (underground storage structures), where the offspring are clones of the parent plant, typically growing in clusters (Gracie, 2012). Indian turnip can also reproduce sexually through seeds produced by the berries, or fruit of a female plant (Gracie, 2012) as shown in figure 2. In order to produce seeds a female plant must be pollinated with the pollen of a male plant that is not a clone of the same parent plant (Gracie, 2012). There are two speculated pollinators for Indian turnip, thrips and fungus gnats (Gracie, 2012). However, Indian turnip releases an odor that attracts gnats and gnats are the favoured pollinators due to their ability to transport pollen farther (Gracie, 2012)

Toxicas.JPG

The Toxic Affects of Indian Turnip on Consumers

Plants in the Arum family are known to contain calcium oxalate crystals (Jadhave & Gugloth, 2019). These crystals can be found throughout Indian turnip, and caution should be used while working with, and consuming the plant (Foster & Duke, 2000). The root has the highest concentration of crystals and is the most dangerous (Jadhave & Gugloth, 2019). Calcium oxalate crystals cause irritation when touched (Foster & Duke, 2000), and when ingested, will pierce parts of the digestive system due to their needle-like shape (Jadhave & Gugloth, 2019). This can cause severe discomfort due to swelling, burning sensations, or choking (Jadhave & Gugloth, 2019). In some cases, this can be lethal due to airway obstruction, however in most cases symptoms are able to be managed (Jadhave & Gugloth, 2019).

Medicinal and Food Uses

Although Indian turnip is toxic, with proper preparation the root was used for many medicinal purposes. It was internally used by making a tea or the plant was dried and consumed (Foster & Duke, 2000). Externally it used by making a poultice (Foster & Duke, 2000). Tea made from Arisaema triphyllum has diaphoretic, expectorant and purgative properties (Foster & Duke, 2000). Other internal uses include the treatment of coughs and colds (Foster & Duke, 2000), asthma (Jones, 2000), and bronchitis (Gracie, 2012). External uses include the treatment of snake bites, rheumatism (Gracie, 2012), boils, abscesses and ringworm (Foster & Duke, 2000).

Indian turnip was also consumed as a food source by Indigenous Peoples. The corms of the plant contain starch (Kunkel, 1984), which is considered to be rich in nutrients (Hedrick 1919). One method of consumption involves the roots being shredded and boiled with deer meat along with the berries of the plant (Sturevant, 1972). Alternately, the root can be dried and thinly sliced to be eaten like a chip (Peterson, 2009). Indian turnip is also consumed by baking the plant (Kunkel, 1984), and in some cases the Iroquois used the dried root to create a type of flour (Kuhnlein & Turner, 1991). This flour is said to have a cocoa like taste (Peterson, 2009). These are just a few of the many ways Indigenous Peoples have used and still use Indian turnip for their benefit.

Associated Indigenous People

Indian turnip was used by many Indigenous groups as both a food source and a medicine. Some of the notable Indigenous groups that used Indian turnip are the Cherokee, Chippewa, Iroquois, Malecite, Menaminee, Meskwaki, Micmac, Mohegan, Ojibewa, Pawnee, Penobscot, Rappahannock, Choctaw (Moerman, 2009), and the Western Cherokee (Jones, 2000).

The Iroquois and Western Cherokee will be discussed in greater detail. The Iroquois are Indigenous groups in North America who speak an Iroquoian language (Britannica, 1998). They occupy the territory surrounding Lake Erie, Lake Huron, and Lake Ontario (Britannica, 1998) as seen in figure 3. This includes Southern Ontario and Quebec, New York State, and Pennsylvania (Britannica, 1998). The Iroquois were both hunters and gathers, known as semisedentary agriculturalists (Britannica, 1998). The men built the longhouses, hunted/fished, and engaged in military activities (Britannica, 1998). The women grew crops, gathered food, and prepared goods such as clothing (Britannica, 1998). They lived in longhouses, with the typical longhouse housing multiple families (Britannica, 1998). This formed the basic traditional unit, as for many households formed clans (Britannica, 1998). Tribes consisted of several clans coming together to form two moieties (Britannica, 1998). Their political systems were based on kinship and locality (Britannica, 1998).

Figure 3, shows the territory occupied by the Iroquois (Canada History Project, 2011)

The Western Cherokee used Indian turnip as a medicinal herb to treat rheumatism and asthma (Jones, 2000). The Western Cherokee immigrated to Arkansas and Missouri in the early 1700s (Jones, 2000). They have a deep mistrust in outsiders and “the government” due to severe discrimination and prejudice they experienced throughout history (Jones, 2000). They were denied the ownership of the developed land they lived on and could be forced out of state due to not being permanently settled (Jones, 2000). There were statutes passed in Missouri forbidding “hunting and roaming” within the state, and trade with any tribe not permanently settled (Jones, 2000). The history of the Western Cherokee is not well preserved in writing due to this mistrust (Jones, 2000). The use of traditional medicine is still extensively practiced, most aliments are treated using herbs or other homemade medicines (Jones, 2000). The knowledge of medicinal herbs is passed down through generations and considered sacred (Jones, 2000). These practices and the knowledge associate with these practices are not shared with outsiders and are heavily guarded (Jones, 2000).

Challenges that Indian Turnip Faces

Populations of Indian turnip face many challenges including fungal pathogens, natural predation, and invasive earthworms. Indian turnip is affected by a fungal pathogen called Uromyces ari-triphylli which causes rust (Gracie, 2012). It appears as a yellow or orange colour on the plants leaves or spathe, and negatively affects the plants longevity (Gracie, 2012). It also causes additional stress, which results in the plants reverting from female to male (Gracie, 2012). Daughter plants that are reproduced vegetatively (via corms) will also be affected; however, plants reproduce sexually (via seeds) will not (Gracie, 2012).

Natural predation is a challenge among many wildflowers, including Indian turnip. An example is the white-tailed deer who forage on many wildflowers (Gracie, 2012). Although they often avoid Indian turnip due to its irritating properties, with their populations increasing, they will start to eat the less desirable plants (Gracie, 2012). This causes a general decrease in the plants size and its ability for the plant to reproduce (Gracie, 2012). Another challenge are the invasive earthworms because they change the soil composition and humus levels in forests (Gracie, 2012). Their activity also causes the uproot of Indian turnip, along with burying their seeds too deep to properly germinate (Gracie, 2012). Ultimately fungal pathogens, natural predation, and invasive earthworms are challenges faced by Indian turnip.

Conclusion

Indian turnip, also referred to as Jack-in-the-pulpit or Dragon root, is a spring wildflower found in Eastern North America. Although it contains calcium oxalate crystals, and is considered toxic, it also has many beneficial properties. Through proper preparation Indigenous groups have used and still used Indian turnip today as a traditional medicine and as a food source.

References

1.Canada History Project. (2011). Canada: A Country by Consent. Artistic Productions Limited. http://canadahistoryproject.ca/index.html

2.Encyclopedia Britannica, inc. (1998). Iroquois. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iroquois-people

3.Foster, S., & Duke, J. A. (2000). A field guide to medicinal plants and herbs of eastern and central North America. Houghton Mifflin Company.

4.Gracie, C. (2021). Jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum), Araceae. In Florapedia: A brief compendium of floral lore (pp. 73–75). Princeton University Press.

5.Gracie, C. (2012). Spring wildflowers of the northeast a natural history. Princeton University Press.

6.Jadhav, D. R., & Gugloth, R. (2019). Poisoning due to arisaema triphyllum ingestion. Indian Journal of Critical Care Medicine, 23(5), 242–243. https://doi.org/10.5005/jp-journals-10071-23171

7.Jones, T. (2000). Commentary: Commentary on "cultural conservation of medicinal plant use in the Ozarks". Human Organization, 59(1), 136–140.

8.Kuhnlein, H. V., & Turner, N. J. (1991). Food and nutrition in history and anthropology: Vol. 8. Traditional plant foods of Canadian Indigenous Peoples. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers.

9.Kunkel Günther. (1984). Plants for human consumption an annotated checklist of the edible Phanerogams and Ferns. Koeltz Scientific Books.

10.Moerman, D. E. (2009). Native American medicinal plants: An ethnobotanical dictionary. Timber Press.

11.Peterson, L. (1977). Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants of eastern and central North America. Houghton Mifflin Company.

12.Sturtevant, E. L. (1972). Sturtevant's edible plants of the world. (U. P. Hedrick, Ed.). Dover Publications.