Chapters 6.6

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Opuntia.jpg

Suggested citation for this chapter.

Zhang, T. (2022) Greens, Fleshy Stems and Gourds. In The Student Encyclopedia of Canadian Indigenous Foods. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.firstnationsfoods.org/

Background

The plant kingdom is extremely diverse. It encapsulates organisms of all sizes, colours, and shapes. However, despite this diversity many people will default to the leafy greens like trees, flowers, or grasses. For many people in the west these plants are seen almost everyday and to the untrained eye they could be virtually indistinguishable. The same can not be said for the Cactaceae family. They are perhaps some of the most easily identifiable families in the whole kingdom. Their sharp spines contrast greatly with the flat leaves of more traditional plants and their arid and harsh habitats leave the Cactaceaes as some of the only plants that can live there. However, even among the cacti there are some who have turned away from the traditional way of life. A few cacti decided to up their game and move north into colder regions of North America. One such cactus that falls into this category is Opuntia fragilis.

Characteristics

Opuntia fragilis., commonly called the fragile or brittle prickly pear cactus, is the most common species of cactus that is native to Canada (Benson 1982). Unlike the stereotypical tall cactus many people think of, Opuntia fragilisis very small. They only grow to around 10cm high with the stems being a flat 2cm thick and 4.5cm across. However, they do grow in large patches that are often greater than 30cm in diameter. Like other cacti they also have flowers and produce fruit. But due to the inherent size of Opuntia fragilis, these reproductive

Bransford, W.D. (1991). Opuntia fragilis [Photograph]. University of Texas. https://www.wildflower.org/gallery/result.php?id_image=2567

features are no larger than a couple centimeters in any dimension. The flowers are usually a shade of yellow with a whiteish interior. The colour of the fruits varies depending on its maturity. At first, they are green but as they grow larger and ripen it slowly turns red (Benson 1982).

Range & habitat

The habitat of Opuntia fragilis could be an explanation for its small size. Most of the time they are found growing in sand, gravel, or rocky soils (Benson 1982). These environments are mostly found in valleys, mountainsides, or deserts. On a larger scale, across North America, Opuntia fragilis has a range that extends all the way south to Arizona, east to Ontario and north to Central British Columbia. The latter population living in Central B.C., is the worlds most northern natural population of cactus (Benson 1982). These diverse yet poor environments forces Opuntia fragilis to reduce in size as to not rapidly deplete the sparsely available nutrients and water (Anderson 2001).

Pinkava, D.J et al. (2017). Opuntia fragilis range [map]. IUCN. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T151913A121572262.en .

Indigenous relations

In Canada, aside from its population in British Columbia, Opuntia fragilis can also be found in the 3 prairie provinces and small parts of Ontario (Benson 1982). This wide range of Opuntia fragilis meant it had ample opportunities to interact with the local indigenous peoples. While it is more than certain that indigenous populations elsewhere interacted with Opuntia fragilis, most written accounts are from groups in British Columbia. Coincidentally, B.C. and its neighboring American state, Washington, has the highest population density of the brittle prickly pear cactus (Benson 1982). Due to this, its possible that indigenous peoples in that area such as the Nlaka'pamux or Okanagan peoples, had many more interactions with Opuntia fragilis, compared to that of the Blackfeet confederacy or Ojibway people, who only had the opportunity to come across the cactus occasionally.

Okanagan peoples

The Okanagan peoples are from the area around Okanagan Lake. Here, the lake and its tributaries provide ample water and nutrients to the soil. But due to the mountainous terrain, rocky outcrops are not uncommon. This combination of abundant resources and typically unhospitable land made the Okanagan region a prime location for Opuntia fragilis to settle down. It only makes sense for the local Okanagan peoples to notice this and take advantage of what is given to them. However, it is their cultural connection to the brittle prickly pear that is of the most interest. “The Theft of Salmon’s Wife” is supposedly an Okanagan short story that coincidentally explains the origins of the widespread Opuntia fragilis (Spier et al. 1938). In this story, Salmon, throws prickly pear cactus all over the prairies for others to eat. He does the same with multiple other foods such as berries and tree moss. While the message behind this short story can be a bit convoluted, the fact that the brittle prickly pear cactus was mentioned at all means it had a substantial impact on the Okanagan way of life. As a matter of fact, one doesn’t even need a short story to understand that. Early on, the Okanagan people recognized that the blooming of Opuntia fragilis also indicated that the local Saskatoon berries were ripening (Turner 2014). Kuhnlein & Turner (1991) states that the Saskatoon berries were often eaten alongside the brittle prickly pear. This could only mean that, at the very least, they were both recognized as a useful forage food if not a staple in their diet.

Nlaka'pamux peoples

This was the case of the Nlaka'pamux peoples. Originally from a region just west of the Okanagan Lake, where the Fraser River and Thompson River meet, Opuntia fragilis was also an extremely abundant resource to the Nlaka'pamux peoples. Their hardiness and reliance allowed for the cactus to not only survive under the snow, but it was also extremely easy for the people to store (Turner 2014). This came in handy during many winters where other foods were particularly scarce. In those times the Nlaka'pamux peoples would solely depend on brittle prickly pear cactus and other stored food items for nourishment. In their darkest days it could have been the only source of food available to them (Kuhnlein & Turner 1991).

Benefits

Opuntia fragilis may have been an important food source but its sharp and spiny exterior makes it a difficult food to approach. However, once the exterior of the cactus is stripped away the inside of Opuntia fragilis can be surprisingly beneficial. Its tough exterior consists of a high concentration of nopal fiber (Nobel 2002). In humans, when properly digested, it can be a quality source of fiber. Fibers are best known for assisting in digestion and even reducing the chances of certain dietary diseases such as cancer (Anderson 2001). Another benefit of the cactus is its low fat and cholesterol (Nobel 2002). The combination of these, along with a considerable concentration of vitamins and minerals make the prickly pear cactus a relatively healthy food

Methods

To get to these important nutrients the cactus must first be picked. However, the spiny and densely packed cactus can be difficult to harvest. But once this is done, it is usually only the stem that is eaten. The flowers and fruits have benefits of their own, but the main bulk of the nutrients comes from the stem or cladode (Nobel 2002). To cook this part of the cactus the spines must first be removed. This is usually done by singeing the spines off on an open flame (Kuhnlein & Turner 1991). Now without its spines the cactus can then be cooked, boiled, or roasted over the same fire. When properly cooked the hard exterior can easily be removed, revealing the inners which is the main edible part of the plant (Kuhnlein & Turner 1991).

Today there are many methods to eat the insides of Opuntia fragilis but traditionally it was simply eaten by itself or with another snack such as the previously mentioned Saskatoon berries (Kuhnlein & Turner 1991). Their small size limits them from ever becoming a staple cultivar to the indigenous peoples as much larger and more abundant plants such as maize or even Saskatoon berries were a better choice. This restricted the role of Opuntia fragilis to that of a snack or famine food during difficult times (Turner 2014).

Medicine

Aside from being an important food Opuntia fragilis could also be used in medicine, animal feed or even in dye production. Its function as a medicine, traces all the way back to its role as a food for indigenous peoples. Turner (2014) notes that the Okanagan’s often ate the prickly pears to assist in digestion and urination. This does have a certain degree of scientific backing as the previously mentioned high fiber content plays a large role in the digestive system. Other, perhaps less scientific, uses of Opuntia fragilis are its use as a treatment for sores and, oddly enough, a consumable that facilitates childbirth (Anderson 2001). More recent studies have confirmed that, when eaten, cacti of the Opuntia genus can significantly decrease blood sugar levels (Iturriaga 2016). However, this only takes place when consuming the raw or cooked cladode of the cactus. The same studies demonstrated that heavily processed capsules of dried cactus had no impact on blood sugar levels while only having minimal impact on cholesterol digestion (Iturriaga 2016

Animal feed

The potential for Opuntia fragilis to be used as animal feed presents the largest opportunity for its future commercialization. Currently many in the Opuntia genus are grown in dry and arid regions of the world for the purpose of feeding animals (Nobel 2002). In these areas water retention is rather difficult and traditional feeds find it difficult to prosper. However, cactus is well adapted to these environments, so they are often used and seen as a low cost, low effort, alternative to traditional feeds. Alone the cladodes of cactus have a high concentration of water and fibers. In fact, consumption of cladodes in high volumes can lead to the livestock abstaining from other sources of water intake and a laxative effect, where nutrients aren’t properly absorbed. Luckily, this can be avoided with the addition of straw or hay. Aside from fibers and water, Opuntia can also have acceptable amounts of calcium and phosphorus. Unfortunately, these cacti often fall behind in protein content. However, this can be alleviated by the addition of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers (Nobel 2002).

Figure 3 Consuming 300g of cladode can lead to the severely decreased water intake. This is not necessarily a downside Salem et al. (1996). Cladode Intake Affects on Water Intake. [Graph]. Cacti: Biology and Uses

addition of straw or hay. Aside from fibers and water, Opuntia can also have acceptable amounts of calcium and phosphorus. Unfortunately, these cacti often fall behind in protein content. However, this can be alleviated by the addition of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers (Nobel 2002). Like most feeds, cactus as an animal feed is rarely eaten alone. It is sufficient for those who don’t have access to better resources but to see the best results, it should be mixed with other ingredients. This is due to their fiber content making it easier to pass through the body and promote the secretion of extra saliva (Nobel 2002). In ruminants like sheep and cows, this can increase the volume of microorganisms in their gut by nearly 4 times allowing for a 30% increase in volatile fatty acid absorption (Ben-Salem et al. 1996). Certain amounts of molasses and grains should also be added to curb other side effects of high cactus intake (Nobel 2002).

Dye

Cacti can be used in dye production. At a glance, green dye would be the most reasonable colour to come out of cactus. Its tough exterior does a good job at holding on its chlorophyll which can create a temporary green colour. However, cacti are best known for its involvement in the production of red dye. Parasitic insects called cochineals feed on the stems of cactus (Anderson 2001). While doing so they produce carminic acid which is bright red in colour. This is extracted from the cochineals by grinding the dried insects into a fine powder. After it is dissolved in water, the natural red dye is then sold to many industries. A few notable industries that use these dyes are the food industry, cosmetic industry, and textile industry (Nobel 2002). Unfortunately, as mentioned before the cochineals are a parasite. On larger cacti they can happily eat away with minimal damage done to the plant. But due to the small size of Opuntia fragilis, its viability as a consistent dye producer remains questionable.

Miscellaneous uses

Some other, less impactful, uses of cactus are as ornamental plants, firewood, construction material, or even a type of mosquito regulator (Anderson 2001). The small size of Opuntia fragilis, once again, prevents it from being a meaningful material for large scale construction. But like others in the Opuntia genus it has significant concentration of mucilage. In the form of a clear sticky liquid, it lines the insides of the cladodes and is especially present when growing at lower temperatures (Nobel 2002). When applied to surfaces and dried this mucilage can be an excellent glue and was commonly used to seal traditional canoes. The mucilage along with other crushed up parts of the stem can supposedly also be a detriment to mosquito larvae (Anderson 2001).

References

1. Anderson, E.F. (2001). The Cactus Family. Timber Press, Inc.

2. Ben, S.H. et al. (1996). Effect of increasing levels of spineless cactus on intake and digestion. Animal Science. 62: 293-299.

3. Benson, L.D. (1982). The Cacti of The United States and Canada. Stanford University Press.

4. Iturriaga, L., Nazareno, M. (2016). Functional Components and Medicinal Properties of Cactus Products. Functional Properties of Traditional Foods. 12: 251-269.

5. Kuhnlein, H.V., Turner, N.J., (1991). TRADITIONAL PLANT FOODS OF CANADIAN INDIGENOUS PEOPLES Nutrition, Botany and Use. University of California Press.

6. Nobel, P.S., (2002). Cacti: Biology and Uses. University of California Press.

7. Spier, L. et al. (1938). General series in anthropology: The Sinkaietk or Southern Okanagon of Washington. George Banta Publishing Company.

8. Turner, N.J. (2014). Ancient Pathways, Ancestral Knowledge: The History and Practice of Indigenous Plant Knowledge. McGill-Queen’s University Press.