Chapters 7.11
7.11- Caribou
Alexis Hoste , University of Guelph, Canada
Suggested citation for this chapter.
Hoste ,A. (2022) Mammals. In The Student Encyclopedia of Canadian Indigenous Foods. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.firstnationsfoods.org/
Background
The Rangifer Tarandus
The Rangifer Tarandus is commonly known as the woodland caribou or reindeer depending on their location (Tryland & Kutz, 2018). The term caribou is associated with all wild species in North America and domestic species of Eurasia origin residing in North America (Tryland & Kutz, 2018). While reindeer refers to the wild and semi-domesticated species in Eurasia (Tryland & Kutz, 2018). They are part of the Cervidae or the deer family and have a life expectancy of 10-12 years (Landis, 2016). Like deer, they are herbivores/ruminant species and are prey animals in nature, so they travel in herds shown in figure 1(Tryland & Kutz, 2018). Reindeer are considered to be Arctic animals as assumed from their iconic role of pulling Santa’s sleigh on Christmas Eve. They have the physiology for the adaptation of these climates (Banfield, 2009). They have hooves with a large surface area that allows them to walk on snow and ice with ease, in addition, they grow a thicker coat of fur and accumulate fat that acts as insulators that protect the animal from harsh weather (Banfield, 2009). Both male and female species carry antlers however bulls often have larger ones (Landis, 2016). Bulls begin shedding theirs first usually in November after mating season (when in a rut) and cows shed theirs in early spring after calving, both sexes grow a new pair in spring (Banfield, 2009). Antlers are used as a defense mechanism to predators as well as a sign of superiority to fellow caribou. It is generalized for a caribou to have one offspring per year starting at three years old for a total of 8 calves at prime living conditions (Landis, 2016). The majority of caribou in North America are wild and are listed at around 2-3000000 in the last millennium (Tryland & Kutz, 2018). They were severely over-hunted in North America, primarily in Canada in the early 2000s, catching the attention of the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) (Tryland & Kutz, 2018).
Geographic Origin
The colonization of the Rangifer Tarandus was determined from the analysis of protein, nuclear DNA, and mitochondrial DNA from species found today (Roed, 2005). However, the current subspecies DNA was not compatible with extant subspecies (Roed, 2005). Meaning that the morphological differences between species are the result of evolution derived from the post-glacial environmental changes (Roed, 2005). Environmental changes forced the caribou to adapt to new climates for survival. It is presumed that the most extensive gene pool from which most caribou species are derived, originated in the extensive areas of the tundra in Eurasia and Beringia (Roed, 2005). Common regions include; Scandinavia (Finland, Iceland, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, and the Faroe) as well as Siberia including the vast region of Russia and northern Kazakhstan, covering most of northern Asia, which consists of purple and blue regions within the arctic circle (Roed, 2005). The common species are but are not exclusively the R.t. tarandus and R.t. fennicus (Boreal Woodland and the Finnish Forest Reindeer)(Roed, 2005). Most, if not all, subspecies of caribou and reindeer stem off of this initial gene pool including in North America and Arctic species (Roed, 2005). The most widespread subspecies of Caribou that originated in North America are known as the R.t. granti and groenlandicus or Barren-ground species (Roed, 2005). These animals are native to Nunavut, Northwest Territories, and Greenland (Roed, 2005), however, they migrated/colonized over to Eurasia where they were semi-domesticated and used for hunting/pulling sleds (National Wildlife Refuge, 2021). The subspecies found in arctic regions are the R.t platyrhynchus, R.t pearyi, and R.t eogroenlandicus or commonly known as the Svalbard, Peary, and the Barren-ground caribou (Roed, 2005). The species of Caribou talked about today in North America is the R.t. caribou but referred to as the North American caribou or the woodland caribou (Roed, 2005). This is the Caribou that is referred to when generalizing commercialization and production.
Association to indigenous communities
There are 10 cultural areas divided within North America that highlight the Native American groups and their cultures mapped out in figure 2 (Pauls, 2021). Out of these regions, there are two where the relationship between indigenous people and caribou was mutual, Western Alaska and the Subarctic (Pauls, 2021). Both regions have indigenous communities that were dependent on caribou; whether as a food source, structural demands, or protection against climate.
Western alaska/american arctic
Aboriginal groups associated with western Alaska are the Inuit, Yupik/Yupiit, and Aleut tribes (Pauls, 2021). They are/were native to the arctic coast and occupy parts of Saint Lawrence Island and land surrounding the Bering Sea (Pauls, 2021). Most Alaskan groups prefer to be addressed as Native Alaskans compared to the term Native American, and Canada’s Arctic groups use the term Inuit (Pauls, 2021). Their main language is Central Alaskan Yupik, which is a member of the Eskimo-Aleut language family (Pauls, 2021). These tribes relied on hunting and gathering inland and fishing in the coastal regions (Pauls, 2021). The long days during the summer spiked a growth of vegetation, drawing in large herds of caribou (Pauls, 2021). Igloos were commonly used as housing, dog sleds and canoe were the main sources of travel and caribou fur was used for warmth in these climates (Pauls, 2021).
The Subarctic
The subarctic region includes parts of Alaska and most of Canada with the exception of Maritime provinces (Pauls, 2021). This would include Newfoundland, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia, Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut (Pauls, 2021). Innu (Montagnais and Naskapi), Cree, Ojibwa, Chipewyan, Beaver, Slave, Carrier, Gwich’in, Tanaina, and Deg Xinag are all prominent tribes native to this area (Pauls, 2021). Their traditional languages are all classified under the Athabascan and Algonquian families (Pauls, 2021). Primary sources of protein consumed were moose, caribou, and beaver, accompanied by plant foods such as berries, roots, and sap (Pauls, 2021). The occasional fishing trip occurred when tribes would gather and head to the coast (Pauls, 2021). The majority of the biome in this region consists of the Boreal forest (coniferous) (Pauls, 2021). The climate is more moderate than the arctic, which made semi-subterranean housing (wood shelters with a stone base and animal hide insulation) during the extreme weather and tents/wigwams (teepees) during summer climates ideal (Pauls, 2021). Snowshoeing/toboggan and sleds were the sources of travel and caribou hide was used for structural purposes (Pauls, 2021).
Value nutritional
The primary use of caribou is for meat which is called venison. Caribou meat is a high-calorie food and a good source of protein, having higher protein content than most of today’s red meats shown in figure 3 (Banfield, 2009). Certain organs also have high levels of iron and vitamin A (Banfield, 2009). White trappers (Europeans that colonized North America, also known as American/Canadian) often spoke for the hindquarters whereas the indigenous peoples preferred the head and rib basket, however, all could agree that the tongue was superior to all other parts (Banfield, 2009). Most organs were also consumed with the exception of the heart and sometimes preferred like the liver (Banfield, 2009). The back fat was a key ingredient in pemmican which is dried meat like jerky (Banfield, 2009). Antlers were boiled down to produce a gelatin-like substance that could be used for baking or jellies when paired with berries (Banfield, 2009). Bone marrow from leg bones is extracted and eaten on special occasions as it is considered a delicacy (Banfield, 2009). Even the animal’s hooves were eaten if cooked properly (Banfield, 2009). All meat that was not appealing or rendered useless was fed to sled dogs and when fishing was not easily accessed (during winter months), caribou was the main source of food for these animals (Banfield, 2009). In perspective, a team of ten to fourteen sled dogs would eat a caribou per day (Banfield, 2009).
Attire
In colder climates, where indigenous often found themselves when living off caribou, the fur and hide were used for garments. Caribou hide is a natural insulator and provides winter outfits for hunters (Banfield, 2009). A complete winter outfit would consist of a parka, trousers, high boots, and gloves, in addition to an underlayer that consists of a suit, inner trousers, and stockings (Banfield, 2009). This outfit would take at least twelve hides to make (Banfield, 2009). Leather from a bull caribou’s forehead was used for the soles in boots, the calf skins were used for the stockings and the inner parka, and leggings were made from the hide of the legs (Banfield, 2009). Hides were also used for sleeping robes where four to six hides may be sewn together (Banfield, 2009). In total, twenty-five hides a year would be used for a family of four (Banfield, 2009).
Structural
Parts of the caribou were key in construction and tools. Hides were used for beds, igloo doors, and roofs, for covers of food storage bins, to line sleds, and to throw over sleigh loads (Banfield, 2009). The odd teepee in the subarctic use caribou hides, however canvas tents are more popular (Banfield, 2009). In odd circumstances when lacking seals, caribou hides were used to cover kayaks, taking up to twelve each (Banfield, 2009). Leftover fat is used as a fuel source for oil lanterns and bones and antlers were whittled into weapons for hunting, handles for tools, and support structures for tents and sleighs (Banfield, 2009).
Significance
Cultural
The overhunting of caribou has left a serious decline in numbers and has placed many subspecies on endangered lists. A study was done to relate the loss of identity in relation to the decline in caribou numbers within native tribes. Caribou were used in many spiritual ceremonies where the bone marrow was made into stew and shared (Borish et al, 2020). The caribou symbolizes different things according to different tribes, for example, in Labrador it symbolizes the strength of soldiers but for the groups in the subarctic, it is a symbol of life itself (Borish et al, 2020). Multiple people concluded that caribou are linked to their identity and go as far as certain tribes using it as a symbol of their clan, such as the Ojibwe in Ontario (Dybas, 2015). The symbolism of the caribou to the Ojibwe clan can be found in ancient pictographs found in several places including Quetico Provincial Park to the west of Lake Superior and among the Agawa Rock pictographs on its eastern shore (Dybas, 2015).
Economic
The caribou was described as the cornerstone of the economy between the Athabascan and the Algonquin tribes (Banfield, 2009). The primary source of income/trade exchanges was between the indigenous communities and the Americans, caribou meat being the main demand (Banfield, 2009). Today, more than 25 000 people still depend on the economy of caribou between Nunavut and Labrador using traditional practices (Banfield, 2009). Nunavut’s caribou harvesting industries make up the majority of their GDP and employment opportunities (Banfield, 2009). They are known for having the largest caribou hunt in the world (Banfield, 2009).
Limitations
Indigenous peoples of Canada but more specifically in the American Subarctic are limited on caribou hunting through bans put out by government agencies (Tryland & Kutz, 2018). Canadians are often quick to blame native communities for overhunting due to the fact that they do not have hunting laws to abide by, however, before colonization from Europe, when the tribes were more dependent on caribou meat and hunting more, population numbers remained stable (Banfield, 2009). It is also a myth that caribou have more natural predators but this can be dismissed because the only known predator of the caribou are wolves. The total annual effect of wolf predation is less than 5 percent of the total caribou population, including periods of spiked wolf abundance (Banfield, 2009). The decline in population numbers of caribou is likely due to recreational hunting being done without proper certification where the animal is not killed for no purpose other than the actual kill, as well as climate variations and loss of habitat (Banfield, 2009). Urbanization across Canada as well as global warming has caused the caribou to migrate north and lose numbers (Banfield, 2009).
References
1.Banfield, A. (2009, September 3). The Plight of the Barren-Ground Caribou. Oryx, 4(1)
2.Borish, D., Consolo, A., Snook, J., Shiwak, I., & Wood, M. (2020, July 17). “Caribou was the reason, and everything else happened after”: Effects of caribou declines on Inuit in Labrador, Canada. Globa Environmental Change, 68, 102268. Retrieved October 22, 2021, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378021000479
3.Dybas, C. L. (2015, October 1). Last of the Gray Ghosts: Uncovering the Secret Lives of Our Woodland Caribou. In Lake Superior Magazine. Retrieved November 29, 2021, from https://www.lakesuperior.com/the-lake/natural-world/375-last-of-the-gray-ghosts/
4.Landis, B. (2016, December 19). The Other 364 Days of the Year: The Real Lives of Wild Reindeer. In USGS Science for a Changing World. Retrieved November 29, 2021, from https://www.usgs.gov/news/other-364-days-year-real-lives-wild-reindeer-2
5.National Wildlife Refuge. (2021, April 13). Caribou Migration. In the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service.
6.Pauls, E. Prine (2021, August 17). Native American. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved November 29, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Native-American
7.Roed, K. H. (2005, March 1). Refugial origin and postglacial colonization of holarctic reindeer and caribou. In Rangifer. Retrieved October 22, 2021, from https://septentrio.uit.no/index.php/rangifer/article/view/334
8.Tryland, M., & Kutz, S. J. (2018, November 9). Reindeer and Caribou-Health and Disease. In Google Scholar -Books .
9.Alaska Department of Fish and Game. (n.d.). Eating Game Meat. In Nutritional Value of Alaskan Meat. Retrieved November 30, 2021, from https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=hunting.eating
10.Krasnoshchokov, S. (2017, March 6). Caribou herd traveling on snow. In USGS Science for a Changing World. Retrieved November 29, 2021, from https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/caribou-herd-traveling-snow
11.Kutz, S. J. (2003, January). FIGURE 1. In Research Gate. Retrieved November 29, 2021, from https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Boundaries-and-definitions-for-the-Arctic-and-Subarctic-regions-according-to-the_fig1_285855224
12.Pauls, E. Prine (2021, August 17). Native American. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved November 29, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Native-American